31. C The author’s purpose is to provide evidence of a plan to start a colony. Clues: …evidently with a longer stay in mind…; …the Norse attempt at colonization. (1.6)
32. B Thwarted means ended in this context. Clues: …continued threats from hostile tribes may have thwarted the Norse attempt at colonization; … departed their settlement. …(1.4)
33. D Vinland was sometimes used as a base for fishing after Thorfinn Karlsefni’s party left. Clues: …they departed their settlement at Vinland…continued to make occasional visits there in later years, using it as a fishing camp. (1.1)
34. C The idea that Vinland referred to a meadow led to Helge Ingstad’s discovery at L’Anse aux Meadows. Clues: Encouraged by an alternative interpretation of “vin” as meaning “meadow”…. (1.1)
35. D The referent of those is something found in Norse structures in Greenland and Iceland. The referent of those is compared to features in three buildings at L’Anse aux Meadows. Logic tells you that those refers to features. (1.3)
36. A The passage does not state that wild grapes were discovered at L’Anse aux Meadows. All of the other answers are given: …sod huts…; …sewing tools…; …a forge… evidence of the first iron working…. (1.2)
37. B In the added sentence. He refers to Eriksson in the previous sentence. In the added sentence, the time marker then and the idea then sailed south to Woodland logically follow landed in a place he called Stoneland in the previous sentence. In the next sentence, Eriksson s party finally landed in Vinland follows the added sentence in time order. (1.8)
38. B, D, E Key information: Eriksson s party finally landed in Vinland, where they spent a winter…; They established the first European colony in North America at Vinland…; Karlsefni and his party passed two years in Vinland…; …a grassy site on the northern tip of Newfoundland…; …the grassland called LAnse aux Meadows was. ..certainly a Norse settlement of some kind. Answers (A) and (F) are minor ideas; answer (C) is not mentioned. (1.9)
39. B The passage does not state that children between the ages of five and seven typically experience an interest in morality and rules. All of the other answers are given: …the period from five to seven years old is a transition to operational thought…a new set of rational-thinking skills; …fundamental growth in the brain and stabilization of brain-wave rhythms…; …an increase in the rates of height acquired and weight gained. (1.2)
40. D You can infer that cognitive development during the five-seven shift is related to biological developments in the child’s brain. Clues: Because several cognitive changes occur in children between ages five and seven, this period is called the five-seven shift. The shift is biological in nature and involves fundamental growth in the brain and stabilization of brain-wave rhythms into a basically adult pattern. (1.5)
41. B The author’s purpose is to give examples of symbols that children can understand. Clues: …children can understand and use symbols. They have developed the ability to use words, gestures, and pictures to stand for “real life” objects…. (1.6)
42. C Peak means high point in this context. Clues: …continues to evolve, reaching a peak…; …become capable of concrete operations. (1.4)
43. D A child who is capable of concrete operations can reason systematically about quantity and space. Clues: …children become capable of concrete operations. When this happens, they can solve problems by using rational thought…; …a new set of abilities allows children to reason systematically about the world of objects, quantity… space…. (1.1)
44. A Hallmark means characteristic in this context.
Clues: …the most widely known hallmark of the five-seven shift, an understanding of conservation…. The passage discusses several characteristics of the five-seven shift; the ability to understand conservation is a well known characteristic. (1.4)
45. D The referent of each is something with six coins pressed close together, beside each other on a table. The sentence discusses an experiment with two straight rows of coins. Logic tells you that each refers to row. (1.3)
46. A Children younger than five years old… is paraphrased in Before the age offive…;…cannot understand conservation… is paraphrased in … they are incapable of understanding conservation; …so they invariably say that the spread-out row has more coins than the other row is paraphrased in …children think the longer line has more coins because…. (1.7)
47. C The author’s purpose is to give a variation on a classic experiment by Piaget. In the previous paragraph, the author describes one of Piaget’s classic experiments on the conservation of quantity. Then the author describes another variation of the experiment. Clues: …there are other ways to set up the task. In a similar experiment…. (1.6)
48. A You can infer that children who easily solve the water task have already experienced the five-seven shift. Solving the task shows that they understand conservation, which means they have reached the level of development resulting from the five-seven shift. Clues: Such experiments show a difference between children of five years and children of eight years. The older children can solve the task promptly…; The younger children. ..cannot do what the five-seven shift will do for them naturally…. (1.5)
49. A In the added sentence, For instance is a transition that introduces an example of conservation, mentioned in the previous sentence. In the added sentence, the fact that when sand is poured back and forth between containers of different sizes and shapes, the quantity of sand does not change illustrates the idea that some properties stay the same despite changes in appearance, mentioned in the previous sentence. (1.8)
50. C, G Before the Five-Seven Shift: …the simplest forms of learning…; …a five-year-old child is able to focus attention on only one quality of an object at a time… ; Children younger than five years old cannot understand conservation….
A, D, F After the Five-Seven Shift: The shift is biological in nature and involves…stabilization of brain-wave rhythms in a basically adult pattern; The child also understands that objects can be rearranged and still have the same quantity…; The older children can solve the task promptly…. Answer (B) is inaccurate both before and after the five-seven shift; answer (E) is not mentioned. (1.10)
51. B The passage does not state that rotation of annual crops contributes to soil degradation. All of the other answers are given: One important factor affecting the productivity of soils over time is agriculture; Poor management practices lead to soil compaction and soil pollution as well as loss of soil cover; One of the most critical soil quality problems related to irrigation is the increase in concentration of dissolved salts; … unless the water drains properly, it collects underground and gradually raises the water table closer to the surface…. (1.2)
52. A Deplete means reduce in this context. Clues: …the average quality of land has decreased, reducing potential productivity…; Crops deplete soil fertility by consuming nutrients, and this eventually reduces crop yields. The prefix de- = down, away. (1.4)
53. D Within the scientific community, there is little doubt… is paraphrased in Most scientists agree…\
… that soil quality is diminishing in many areas around the world is paraphrased in … that soil degradation is occurring in many parts of the world. (1.7)
54. D You can infer that annual crops and common property lands may decrease soil fertility and agricultural productivity. Clues: The loss of soil fertility has caused a slowing in the growth of agricultural productivity; Annual crops tend to degrade soils more…common property lands generally suffer more degradation…. (1.5)
55. C Excessive buildup of salts in the soil is a serious consequence of irrigation. Clues: …irrigation can lead to sharp drops in crop productivity in the long run by causing excessive salt buildup…; One of the most critical soil quality problems related to irrigation is the increase in concentration of dissolved salts. (1.1)
56. A Salinization is a serious problem for agriculture because soils with high salt concentrations are destructive to crop plants. Clues: …the increase in concentration of dissolved salts. This process, salinization…; Salt buildup can stunt crop growth, decrease yields, kill crop plants. …(1.1)
57. D Stunt means limit in this context. Clues: Salt buildup can stunt crop growth, decrease yields, kill crop plants, and eventually make the land unproductive. In general, salt buildup is harmful. (1.4)
58. C Water logging means that the soil holds too much water. Clues: …farmers apply heavy amounts of irrigation water…; …unless the water drains properly, it collects underground and gradually raises the water table closer to the surface…; …wet deserts; .. .prevents water from flowing through the ground. (1.4)
59. B Water logging and salinization are related in that water logging raises and concentrates salts near the surface. Clues: …unless the water drains properly, it collects underground and gradually raises the water table closer to the surface, thereby bringing salts to the surface and concentrating them (1.1)
60. C The referent of which is something that is causing ai increase in soil erosion rates. Logic tells you that which refers to pressure on the soil. (1.3)
61. A The author’s purpose is to illustrate the effect of a small amount of erosion, only 2.5 centimeters of topsoil. Clues: …the loss of just 2.5 centimeters of topsoil reduces com and wheat yields by 6 percent. (1.6)
62. D In the added sentence, they and their refer to salts such as sodium chloride in the previous sentence. The added sentence introduces the topic of a numbe of serious problems caused by salt buildup, which the next sentence develops with examples: …stunt crop growth, decrease yields, kill crop plants, and eventually make the land unproductive. (1.8)
63. C, D, F Key information: important factor affecting the productivity of soils over time is agriculture; Poor management practices lead to soil compaction and soil pollution as well as loss of soil cover; …irrigation can lead to sharp drops in crop productivity in the long run by causing excessive salt buildup and rising water tables; One of the most critical soil quality problems related to irrigation is the increase in concentration of dissolved salts; Another serious soil problem is erosion…;
..the loss of just 2.5 centimeters of topsoil reduces corn and wheat yields…. Answers (A) and (E) are minor ideas; answer (B) is not mentioned. (1.9)